Many people living with aphasia and short-term memory problems after stroke or brain injury can regain practical daily skills with targeted home practice. This article explains how short-term memory and working memory affect communication, and gives easy, evidence-informed activities, routines, and partner strategies you can use at home to build confidence and connection.
How short-term memory and aphasia interact
Short-term memory is the ability to hold a small amount of information in the mind for a very brief period. Usually, this lasts about twenty to thirty seconds. It acts like a temporary storage bin for things like a phone number you just heard or the name of a person you just met. Working memory is a related but different process. It is the mental workspace where you not only hold information but also use it to solve a problem or follow a conversation. If short-term memory is a sticky note, working memory is the act of reading that note while you are busy doing something else. Brain injuries often disrupt these systems. This happens because the injury can damage the pathways that allow the brain to retain or manipulate data. Traumatic brain injury affects over 1.7 million people in the United States every year. It is a leading cause of long-term disability. Research shows that even mild injuries can slow down how quickly the brain scans short-term memory. This makes it harder to process information in real time.
Signs of Memory Struggles at Home
Families often notice specific patterns when a loved one returns home after a stroke or injury. A person might struggle to follow a recipe that has three or four steps. They might forget a name they heard just a minute ago. In conversations, they might stop speaking in the middle of a sentence because they lost their train of thought. These are not just simple slips of the tongue. They are signs that the brain’s workspace is overloaded. You might see them lose track of what they were doing when they walk into a room. They might ask the same question several times in one hour. These lapses happen because the brain cannot move the information from the temporary bin into long term storage. It also cannot hold onto the beginning of a task long enough to reach the end.
Brain Areas and Communication
The hippocampus is a key area for forming new memories. After an injury, this area can stay in a state of stress for weeks. This makes it very hard to learn new things or remember recent events. Other parts of the brain like the frontal lobe help with working memory. When these areas are hurt, communication breaks down. Aphasia makes it hard to find words. If you add a memory problem to that, the person might forget what they were trying to say while they are searching for the right word. This is why treating memory and language together is so important. They rely on each other. If a person cannot remember the start of a sentence, they cannot finish their thought. This creates a cycle of frustration for the speaker and the listener.
Assessment and Professional Help
Speech-language pathologists and neuropsychologists use specific tools to measure these gaps. They might use formal tests like a digit span task. In this test, a person listens to a string of numbers and repeats them back. They might also use spatial tasks to see how well the person remembers locations. At home, you can keep a simple log of what you observe. Note if the person struggles more in the morning or the evening. Record how many steps they can follow before they get confused. You should seek a professional evaluation if the memory lapses interfere with safety. This includes forgetting to turn off the stove or failing to take important medications. A professional can provide a clear picture of which memory systems are affected. They can help create a plan to manage these challenges.
A Typical Conversation Breakdown
Imagine a man named Mark who is recovering from a stroke. His wife says, Mark, please put the mail on the counter, then come help me move this chair. Mark picks up the mail. By the time he reaches the counter, he has forgotten the second part of the request. He stands in the kitchen feeling confused. When his wife asks why he isn’t helping, he feels defensive. He does not remember her asking for help with the chair at all. This is not a lack of effort. His working memory simply could not hold both instructions at the same time. This type of breakdown is common and shows how memory issues look like a lack of cooperation when they are actually a processing failure.
Understanding the Path Forward
The way a person recovers depends on many factors. These include their age, the size of the brain lesion, the intensity of their therapy, and their overall health. Some people see significant improvements within the first six months. Others may need to use strategies and tools for a longer period. Research into the effect of traumatic brain injury on memory shows that while some deficits persist, the brain has a remarkable ability to adapt when given the right support.
| Memory Type | What It Does | Home Example |
|---|---|---|
| Short-Term Memory | Holds small bits of info for 30 seconds. | Remembering a door code long enough to type it. |
| Working Memory | Uses and moves info to finish a task. | Following a story while thinking of a response. |
| Procedural Memory | Remembers how to do physical tasks. | Using a fork or tying a shoe. |
Why Integrated Treatment Matters
When a therapist works on both memory and aphasia, they help the person build a stronger foundation for talking. Memory practice can actually improve language skills. This happens because the person gets better at holding onto the words they need while they are trying to speak. Using visual aids can help bridge the gap. Photos or written cues take the pressure off the working memory. This allows the person to focus on the act of communicating. It reduces the cognitive load. When the brain does not have to work as hard to remember the topic, it can find the words more easily. This leads to better connections with family and friends. It also builds confidence for the person living with aphasia.
Daily routines and environmental supports that boost memory
Living with a brain injury means the world often feels like a puzzle with missing pieces. Short-term memory issues make it hard to hold onto new information for more than a few seconds. This struggle is even more intense when aphasia is present. The brain has to work twice as hard to find words while also trying to remember what it was doing. We can make daily life easier by changing the environment. The goal is to lower the cognitive load. This means we remove the need to remember every single detail by putting the information right where it is needed.
Reducing the mental burden
The first step is to simplify the home. A cluttered room leads to a cluttered mind. We want to minimize distractions. This means turning off the television when having a conversation. It means clearing off kitchen counters so only the essential items are visible. When there are fewer things to look at, the brain can focus on the task at hand. Consistent routines are the foundation of this support. When we do things in the same order every day, the brain starts to rely on habit. This is helpful because procedural memory often remains stronger than the ability to remember new facts. By repeating a routine, the body learns the steps even if the mind forgets the specific instructions.
Essential environmental tools
Visual aids act as an external hard drive for the brain. A large wall calendar is a must. It should be placed in a central spot like the kitchen or a hallway. Use a dry erase board or a paper calendar with plenty of space. Color coding helps categorize different types of events. You might use red for medical appointments and green for social visits. This allows the person to understand the day at a glance without reading every word.
Checklists for daily tasks
Create simple checklists for multi-step activities. Making coffee or doing laundry can be overwhelming. A laminated card next to the coffee maker can list the steps. Use short sentences. If reading is difficult due to aphasia, use small icons or photos next to the text. This supports both memory and language comprehension.
Labeled storage
Labels take the guesswork out of finding things. Use a label maker or clear tape to put names on drawers and cabinets. A picture of a plate on a cabinet door tells the person exactly where the dishes go. This prevents the frustration of opening every door in the kitchen just to find a glass. It builds independence and reduces the need to ask for help constantly.
The home command center
Every home needs one specific place for the most important items. This is the command center. It should be near the main entrance. Use a small table or a wall mounted shelf. This is the only place where keys, wallets, and phones live. When these items have a permanent home, the person does not have to remember where they put them. They only have to remember one location. Research on the effect of traumatic brain injury on memory shows that reducing the number of things a person must track can significantly lower daily stress.
Managing medications and papers
The command center should also hold a weekly pill organizer. Use one with clear markings for morning and evening. Keep a basket there for important mail or papers that need attention. This keeps the rest of the house clear of “to-do” piles that can cause anxiety. Timed alarms on a smartphone or a simple kitchen timer can signal when it is time to check the command center for medications.
Daily routines for aphasia support
Routines should be predictable. A morning routine helps set the tone for the day. An evening routine prepares the person for the next day. This reduces morning rushes which are often high stress times.
Morning routine example
1. Wake up and go to the kitchen.
2. Check the wall calendar for the date and weather.
3. Take morning pills from the organizer.
4. Follow the breakfast checklist on the fridge.
Evening routine example
1. Check the calendar for tomorrow’s appointments.
2. Lay out clothes for the next day.
3. Set the phone alarm for the morning.
4. Check that the front door is locked.
Using visual and video prompts
When verbal instructions are hard to follow, use photos. A photo of a correctly set table can help someone help with chores. Video prompts are also very effective. You can record a thirty second video on a tablet showing how to use the microwave. The person can play the video as many times as they need. This replaces the need for a caregiver to repeat instructions. It gives the person with the injury more control over their environment.
Accessibility and safety
For those with low vision, use high contrast materials. Black markers on yellow paper are easier to see than pencil on white paper. Use a font size of at least 18 points for all reminder cards. If literacy is a major barrier, rely entirely on photos of the person performing the task. Safety is always the priority. If memory issues lead to forgetting the stove, consider smart home devices that shut off appliances automatically. We want to support independence, but we must also ensure the home is a safe place.
Fading the supports
As the brain heals, some of these tools may no longer be needed. This is a positive sign. Start by removing the most detailed cues first. If the person can make coffee without the checklist for a week, move the checklist to the inside of the cabinet. If they continue to succeed, you can remove it entirely. Always move slowly. If mistakes start to happen again, simply bring the support back. The goal is to provide just enough help to ensure success without doing the work for them. This balance encourages the brain to keep working while preventing the exhaustion that comes from constant memory failure.
Home practice exercises to strengthen short-term memory and speech
Active practice at home turns recovery into a daily habit. While environmental supports reduce the load on your brain, exercises build the actual strength of your memory and language systems. These two areas work together. If you cannot hold a word in your mind for more than a few seconds, it is hard to finish a sentence. These techniques target that specific gap.
Spaced Retrieval Training
The Method
Spaced retrieval training helps you store specific facts by recalling them over increasing periods of time. It relies on the brain’s ability to learn through repetition without needing to remember the actual training session. This is helpful because procedural memory often stays stronger than the memory for facts after a brain injury. You can read more about procedural memory following moderate-severe traumatic brain injury to understand why this works.
How to do it
Pick one or two important pieces of information. This might be the name of a new therapist or the time for daily medication. Ask a question that requires that specific answer. When the person answers correctly, wait 10 seconds and ask again. If they are right again, wait 30 seconds. Continue to double the time to one minute, two minutes, and five minutes. If an error happens, give the correct answer immediately. Have the person repeat it. Then go back to the last successful time interval.
Frequency
Practice this for 10 minutes every day. Focus on the same two targets until they are remembered consistently for 24 hours.
Errorless Learning and Vanishing Cues
The Method
The goal here is to prevent the brain from “learning” a mistake. If you guess wrong, your brain might remember the wrong word next time. Errorless learning ensures every response is correct. Vanishing cues provide a scaffold that you slowly remove.
How to do it
To learn a word, show a picture and say the word clearly. Have the person repeat it immediately. To use vanishing cues, write the word “COFFEE” on a card. Have the person read it. Then show a card that says “COFFE_”. Then “COFF__”. Continue until only the “C” remains. If the person hesitates, show the full word again. Do not let them struggle or guess.
Chunking and Rehearsal Strategies
The Method
Short-term memory can only hold a few items at once. Chunking groups small pieces of information into larger units. This makes the mental load lighter. Rehearsal is the act of repeating those units to keep them active in the mind.
How to do it
If you need to remember a phone number like 5550199, break it into 555, 01, and 99. Practice saying these three groups out loud. For a grocery list, group items by category. Instead of remembering apples, milk, cheese, and pears, remember “fruit” and “dairy.” Repeat the categories first. Then repeat the items within them.
Semantic Feature Analysis for Word Finding
The Method
This technique builds a map around a word. It helps the brain find the word by looking at its features. This is excellent for people with aphasia who feel a word is on the tip of their tongue.
How to do it
Place a picture of an object in the center of a page. Answer six questions about it. What is the category? What does it do? What does it look like? What is it made of? Where do you find it? What does it remind you of? Even if the person cannot name the object at first, describing these features often triggers the name. It also strengthens the neural pathways for that word.
Graded Activities by Severity
Different stages of recovery require different levels of support. Research shows that profiles of cognitive functioning vary greatly six months after an injury. Use these scripts to guide your practice.
Severe Level
Focus on single words and immediate recall. Use high-level support.
Partner. “This is your daughter, Sarah. Say Sarah.”
Person. “Sarah.”
Partner. “Good. Who is this?”
Person. “Sarah.”
Partner. (Waits 10 seconds) “Who is this?”
Moderate Level
Focus on short phrases and functional lists.
Partner. “We need to buy eggs, bread, and milk. Repeat that.”
Person. “Eggs, bread, milk.”
Partner. “We are in the dairy aisle. What are the two dairy items?”
Person. “Eggs and milk.”
Mild Level
Focus on story retelling and longer delays.
Partner. “I am going to read a short story. A man named John went to the park. He saw a blue bird. He ate a sandwich. Tell me what John did.”
Person. “He went to the park. He saw a bird. He had lunch.”
Partner. “What color was the bird?”
Four-Week Home Program
| Week | Daily Goal | Weekly Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Week 1 | 10 minutes of Spaced Retrieval for 2 names. | Establish a consistent time for practice. |
| Week 2 | Add 5 minutes of Semantic Feature Analysis. | Use pictures of household objects. |
| Week 3 | Practice 2 functional sequences. | Rehearse the steps to make coffee or a call. |
| Week 4 | Increase delay intervals in all tasks. | Review progress and choose new targets. |
Technology and Motivation
Tablets and phones are powerful tools if used safely. Use the camera to take photos of items for Semantic Feature Analysis. This makes the practice personal. If the person loves gardening, use photos of their own plants. This increases motivation. Use a simple log to track success. Mark a check for every correct answer during Spaced Retrieval. Seeing the intervals grow from 10 seconds to 5 minutes provides a visual sense of progress. Keep sessions short. Stop if the person becomes frustrated. Success in small steps is better than a long session filled with errors.
Communication partner strategies and scripts
Being a communication partner for someone with aphasia or memory loss is a specific skill that requires patience and practice. You are acting as a bridge for their thoughts. This role involves more than just listening. You are actively supporting their ability to process information and express themselves. The goal is to reduce the cognitive load so they can focus on the message instead of the struggle to find words or remember the topic.
Principles of Supported Conversation
The environment plays a huge role in how well a person can communicate after a brain injury. Background noise from a television or a dishwasher can make it impossible for them to filter sounds. Always turn off electronics before starting a conversation. Sit face to face so they can see your expressions and lip movements. Give them plenty of time to respond. A good rule is to count to ten in your head before you say anything else. This silence gives their brain the space to process what you said and formulate a response. Speak in short sentences. Stick to one idea at a time. If you pack too much information into one sentence, the beginning of the thought might be lost by the time you reach the end.
The Cueing Hierarchy
When your loved one gets stuck on a word or a memory, do not jump in with the answer immediately. Use a hierarchy of cues to help them find the way themselves. Start with a gentle nudge. This could be a simple encouraging look or a phrase like “take your time.” If they are still struggling, give a semantic cue. This means describing the category or the use of the word. For example, if they cannot remember the word “apple,” you might say “it is a fruit that is red.” The next level is a phonemic cue where you provide the first sound of the word. If they still cannot find it, offer a choice between two options. This reduces the effort needed for retrieval while still giving them a sense of agency. Only provide the full word as a last resort.
Asking the Right Questions
The way you phrase questions can either support or hinder memory. Open-ended questions like “what did you do today” are great for practicing recall, but they can be overwhelming if the person is tired or frustrated. In those moments, switch to closed questions that require a simple yes or no. You can also use forced-choice questions. Instead of asking “what do you want for lunch,” ask “do you want a sandwich or soup.” This provides the vocabulary they need within the question itself. It supports their memory by giving them the targets to choose from immediately.
Techniques to Scaffold Recall
Visual aids are essential tools for supporting short-term memory. Keep a photo album or a digital gallery of frequent visitors and recent events. When talking about a family member, show a picture of that person. This creates a dual-modality experience where they see and hear the information at the same time. Use a central calendar or a whiteboard for daily schedules. If they forget an appointment, point to the board rather than just telling them. This visual prompt acts as an external memory source. Research shows that The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on Memory often impacts the ability to encode new verbal information, so having a physical reference point is vital.
Repairing Misunderstandings
Conversational breakdowns will happen. When they do, stay calm. Do not pretend you understood if you did not. This can lead to more confusion later. Instead, admit that you are having trouble and ask for help to get back on track. You might say “I lost you there. Were we talking about the doctor or the grocery store?” Use gestures to help clarify. If the person becomes frustrated, it is okay to take a break. You can say “let us try again in a few minutes.” This preserves their dignity and prevents the conversation from becoming a source of stress.
Role-Play Examples
Seeing the difference between helpful and unhelpful communication can make these strategies clearer. The following table shows common mistakes and how to fix them.
| Situation | The “Don’t” (Infantilizing or Rushing) | The “Do” (Supporting and Respecting) |
|---|---|---|
| Greeting a visitor | “Say hi to Aunt Mary! You remember her, right?” | “Look, Mary is here. She brought those flowers you like.” |
| Discussing a meal | “You already ate. Don’t you remember the chicken?” | “We had chicken for lunch. It was the recipe with lemon.” |
| Medication time | “Time for your medicine like a good boy.” | “It is 10 AM. Your pills are here. Do you want water or juice?” |
| Word finding | Finishing every sentence for them immediately. | Waiting ten seconds, then giving a small hint about the word. |
Ready-to-Use Scripts
Having a few set phrases can help you feel more confident as a partner. These scripts are designed to be direct and supportive.
Greeting: "Hi! It is good to see you. I am Sarah, your neighbor from next door." Asking about an event: "We went to the park this morning. We saw a big dog. Do you remember the dog's color?" Reminding about medication: "It is time for your heart pill. It is the small white one. Here is your water." Practicing a memory target: "We are practicing your therapist's name. Her name is Jane. Can you say Jane?"
Preserving Dignity and Independence
It is easy to slip into “elderspeak” or a patronizing tone when someone has trouble communicating. Avoid using a high-pitched voice or simplified “baby talk.” Treat the person as the adult they are. Include them in decisions even if they need extra support to understand the options. If they can do part of a task, let them. If they remember one step of a three-step process, celebrate that success. Encouraging independence builds the confidence they need to keep trying. Communication is about connection, not just the perfect exchange of facts.
Training Others
Consistency is key for recovery. If you are the primary caregiver, take 15 to 30 minutes to train other family members or friends. Start by explaining the “ten-second rule.” Most people talk too fast for someone with a brain injury. Have the friend practice a short conversation with you first. Show them where the visual aids are kept. Explain the cueing hierarchy so they do not just give away all the answers. These short training sessions ensure that everyone who visits is supporting the person’s progress rather than causing frustration. When everyone uses the same strategies, the person with the injury feels more secure and understood in their own home.
Common questions and practical answers
Many families feel overwhelmed when they realize that memory does not just snap back after a hospital stay. It is common to have a lot of questions about what comes next and how to handle the daily lapses that happen at home. This section addresses the most frequent concerns with evidence-based answers to help you navigate this stage of recovery.
What is realistic recovery for memory after a stroke or brain injury?
Recovery varies for every person depending on the size of the injury and their overall health. Research shows that a significant number of people make good progress within the first few months. One study found that between 64 percent and 79 percent of participants performed at levels similar to their abilities before the injury when tested six months later. You can read more about these findings in this report on Profiles of Cognitive Functioning at 6 Months After Traumatic Brain Injury. While some people face long-term challenges, many others regain enough function to manage daily life with fewer supports.
Practical tip. Focus on small wins like remembering a single name or a daily task. Keep a simple log to track these successes over several weeks to see the actual trend of improvement.
When should I see a speech-language pathologist or neuropsychologist?
You should seek professional help if memory problems make it unsafe to be alone or if the person cannot follow simple two-step instructions. A speech-language pathologist helps with functional daily communication. A neuropsychologist provides detailed testing to see exactly which parts of memory are affected. If you notice that the person is losing their train of thought in every conversation or forgetting to take vital medication, it is time for an evaluation.
Next step. When you go to the appointment, bring a list of three specific situations where memory failed this week. Include any recent medical reports or discharge summaries from the hospital to help the specialist understand the history.
Which home activities help the most and how often should they be done?
Spaced retrieval training and errorless learning are two of the most effective methods for home practice. These techniques involve practicing a specific piece of information at increasing intervals of time. Short and frequent sessions are much better than one long session. Aim for 10 minutes of focused practice every day. Consistency helps the brain build new pathways more effectively than occasional intense effort.
Practical tip. Pick one high-priority target like a family member’s name or the location of a phone. Practice it for 10 minutes in the morning when the person is most rested and alert.
Are memory medications effective for post-stroke memory problems?
There is currently no standard medication that is proven to fix memory after a stroke or brain injury. Some doctors may prescribe certain drugs off-label, but the evidence for their effectiveness is limited. Scientists are looking at experimental drugs like ISRIB which has shown some success in reversing memory failure in lab settings. However, these are not yet available for general use. You can find more details in this review of The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on Memory.
Next step. Always consult a neurologist before starting any supplements or new medications. Ask them specifically about the risks and benefits for your specific type of brain injury.
How can technology help without causing frustration?
Technology should simplify life rather than add more stress. Use devices that the person already knows how to use. A simple digital tablet with large icons can work well for visual reminders. Set up automated alarms for medications or appointments so the person does not have to remember to check a list. If a new app takes more than five minutes to learn, it is probably too complicated for this stage of recovery.
Practical tip. Start with one single function like a digital calendar. Once the person feels confident with that, you can introduce a second tool like a photo-based contact list.
How do I know if an activity is too hard or too easy?
The best way to judge difficulty is by looking at the error rate. If the person makes mistakes more than 20 percent of the time, the task is too hard and will lead to frustration. If they get every answer right without any effort, the task is too easy and might not be challenging the brain enough. You want to find a middle ground where they are successful but still have to focus.
Next step. If a task is too hard, break it down into smaller steps. Instead of asking them to remember a whole grocery list, start with just two items and use a visual cue like a picture.
Can memory practice improve language or just memory?
Memory and language are closely linked in the brain. When you practice memory, you are often improving the ability to hold onto words and sentences. This is called working memory. Better working memory helps a person follow a conversation and find the right words to say. Improving one area often leads to gains in the other because the brain uses similar networks for both tasks.
Practical tip. Use dual-modality practice by pairing a word with a picture. This strengthens the connection between the memory of the object and the language needed to name it.
| Recovery Profile | Percentage of People | Typical Outcome at 6 Months |
|---|---|---|
| Commensurate Performance | 64% to 79% | Memory and speed match pre-injury levels. |
| No Impairment | 49% to 67% | No significant deficits found in testing. |
| Memory Decline Only | 8.3% | Specific struggles with recall but other skills okay. |
| Global Impairment | 2.6% to 10.9% | Widespread challenges across memory and thinking. |
Understanding these statistics can help set realistic expectations. Most people see improvement, but the pace is rarely a straight line. Using the strategies mentioned in previous chapters, like environmental supports and partner techniques, will help bridge the gap while the brain continues to heal. If progress seems to stall for more than two weeks, it is a good idea to revisit your goals and perhaps simplify the practice routine. Small and steady steps are the most reliable way to build lasting connection and independence at home.
Planning next steps
A 5-Step Starter Plan for This Week
You can start making changes today with a clear plan. Do not try to do everything at once. Focus on these five steps to build a routine.
1. Pick two memory targets. These should be functional, like remembering a neighbor’s name or where you put your phone.
2. Set up a visible daily checklist. Place it in a high-traffic area like the kitchen or the bathroom mirror.
3. Schedule three 10-minute practice sessions. Consistency is more important than length. Short bursts of practice keep you from getting too tired.
4. Train one communication partner on a cue script. Show them how to give a hint instead of the answer right away.
5. Book an assessment with a professional. A formal evaluation helps you understand your specific strengths and needs.
Tracking Your Progress
It is helpful to record your successes in a simple log. You can use a notebook or a digital spreadsheet. Write down the date and how many times you met your goal. If you are making more than 20 percent errors, the task is likely too hard. You should adjust the goal to make it easier. If you see no progress after two weeks of daily practice, it is time to revise your targets. Tracking helps you see the small wins that are easy to miss when you are tired or frustrated. It also gives you concrete information to share with your medical team during appointments.
| Goal Type | Practice Method | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Names or Facts | Spaced Retrieval | 10 minutes daily |
| Daily Routines | Visual Checklists | Every morning/evening |
| Attention | Counting Tasks | 5 minutes twice a day |
Building connection after a brain injury is a journey of small, measurable steps. Every time you use a checklist or recall a name, you are strengthening your brain. Focus on the progress you make each week. Personalizing these strategies makes them work for your life and your family. With regular practice and the right support, you can find new ways to stay connected to the people and activities you love.
Sources
- Procedural Memory Following Moderate-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury — The impact of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on procedural memory has received significantly less attention than declarative memory.
- The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on Memory – PMC — This review examined recent studies to learn more regarding and comprehend the connection between TBI and memory, including short-term memory (STM), working …
- Archive: Drug Reverses Memory Failure Caused by Traumatic Brain … — UCSF scientists used an experimental drug to completely reverse severe learning and memory impairments caused by traumatic brain injury in …
- Profiles of Cognitive Functioning at 6 Months After Traumatic Brain … — In this cohort, 64% to 79% performed commensurate with estimated premorbid abilities in memory, processing speed, and executive functioning.
- Memory and Traumatic Brain Injury: Assessment and Management … — In the United States alone, TBI affects more than 1.7 million Americans annually and is a leading cause of long-term disability (U.S. Department of Health and …
- [PDF] Traumatic Brain Injury In the United States: Epidemiology and … – CDC — TBIs can lead to a spectrum of secondary conditions that might result in long-term impairment, functional limitation, disability, and reduced quality of life.
- Traumatic Brain Injury | Symptoms & Treatments | alz.org — Traumatic brain injury – learn about symptoms, causes and increased risk of developing Alzheimer's or another type of dementia after the head injury.
- The processing of verbal memories after traumatic brain injury — Results: Results revealed significantly greater impairments in encoding, consolidation, and retrieval in TBI participants, compared to controls.
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